Architecture Timeline of Important Historic Periods

When did Western architecture begin? Long before the magnificent structures of ancient Greece and Rome, humans were designing and constructing. The period known as the Classical Era grew from ideas and construction techniques that evolved centuries and eons apart in distant locations. This review illustrates how each new movement builds on the one before. Although our timeline lists dates related mostly to American architecture, historic periods do not start and stop at precise points on a map or a calendar. Periods and styles flow together, sometimes merging contradictory ideas, sometimes inventing new approaches, and often re-awakening and re-inventing older movements. Dates are always approximate — architecture is a fluid art. 11,600 B.C. to 3,500 B.C. — Prehistoric Times Stonehenge in Amesbury, United Kingdom. Jason Hawkes/Getty Images Archaeologists dig prehistory. Gà ¶bekli Tepe in present day Turkey is a good example of archaeological architecture. Before recorded history, humans constructed earthen mounds, stone circles, megaliths, and structures that often puzzle modern-day archaeologists. Prehistoric architecture includes monumental structures such as Stonehenge, cliff dwellings in the Americas, and thatch and mud structures lost to time. The dawn of architecture is found in these structures. Prehistoric builders moved earth and stone into geometric forms, creating our earliest human-made formations. We dont know why primitive people began building geometric structures. Archaeologists can only guess that prehistoric people looked to the heavens to imitate the sun and the moon, using that circular shape in their creations of earth mounds and monolithic henges. Many fine examples of well-preserved prehistoric architecture are found in southern England. Stonehenge in Amesbury, United Kingdom is a well-known example of the prehistoric stone circle. Nearby Silbury Hill, also in Wiltshire, is the largest man-made, prehistoric earthen mound in Europe. At 30 meters high and 160 meters wide, the gravel mound is layers of soil, mud, and grass, with dug pits and tunnels of chalk and clay. Completed in the late Neolithic period, approximately 2,400 BC, its architects were a Neolithic civilization in Britain. The prehistoric sites in southern Britain (Stonehenge, Avebury, and associated sites) are collectively a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The design, position, and inter-relationship of the monuments and sites, according to UNESCO, are evidence of a wealthy and highly organized prehistoric society able to impose its concepts on the environment. To some, the ability to change the environment is key for a structure to be called architecture. Prehistoric structures are sometimes considered the birth of architecture. If nothing else, primitive structures certainly raise the question, what is architecture? Why does the circle dominate mans earliest architecture? It is the shape of the sun and the moon, the first shape humans realized to be significant to their lives. The duo of architecture and geometry goes way back in time and may be the source of what humans find beautiful even today. 3,050 B.C. to 900 B.C. — Ancient Egypt The Pyramid of Khafre (Chephren) in Giza, Egypt. Lansbricae (Luis Leclere)/Getty Images (cropped) In ancient Egypt, powerful rulers constructed monumental pyramids, temples, and shrines. Far from primitive, enormous structures such as the Pyramids of Giza were feats of engineering capable of reaching great heights. Scholars have delineated the periods of history in ancient Egypt. Wood was not widely available in the arid Egyptian landscape. Houses in ancient Egypt were made with blocks of sun-baked mud. Flooding of the Nile River and the ravages of time destroyed most of these ancient homes. Much of what we know about ancient Egypt is based on great temples and tombs, which were made with granite and limestone and decorated with hieroglyphics, carvings, and brightly colored frescoes. The ancient Egyptians didnt use mortar, so the stones were carefully cut to fit together. The pyramid form was a marvel of engineering that allowed ancient Egyptians to build enormous structures. The development of the pyramid form allowed Egyptians to build enormous tombs for their kings. The sloping walls could reach great heights because their weight was supported by the wide pyramid base. An innovative Egyptian named Imhotep is said to have designed one of the earliest of the massive stone monuments, the Step Pyramid of Djoser (2,667 B.C. to 2,648 B.C.). Builders in ancient Egypt didnt use load-bearing arches. Instead, columns were placed close together to support the heavy stone entablature above. Brightly painted and elaborately carved, the columns often mimicked palms, papyrus plants, and other plant forms. Over the centuries, at least thirty distinct column styles evolved. As the Roman Empire occupied these lands, both Persian and Egyptian columns have influenced Western architecture. Archaeological discoveries in Egypt reawakened an interest in the ancient temples and monuments. Egyptian Revival architecture became fashionable during the 1800s. In the early 1900s, the discovery of King Tuts tomb stirred a fascination for Egyptian artifacts and the rise of Art Deco architecture. 850 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Classical The Pantheon, A.D. 126, Rome, Italy. Werner Forman Archive/Heritage Images/Getty Images (cropped) Classical architecture refers to the style and design of buildings in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Classical architecture shaped our approach to building in Western colonies around the world. From the rise of ancient Greece until the fall of the Roman empire, great buildings were constructed according to precise rules. The Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius, who lived during first century B.C., believed that builders should use mathematical principles when constructing temples. For without symmetry and proportion no temple can have a regular plan, Vitruvius wrote in his famous treatise De Architectura, or Ten Books on Architecture. In his writings, Vitruvius introduced the Classical orders, which defined column styles and entablature designs used in Classical architecture. The earliest Classical orders were Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Although we combine this architectural era and call it Classical, historians have described these three Classical periods: 700 to 323 B.C. — Greek. The Doric column was first developed in Greece and it was used for great temples, including the famous Parthenon in Athens. Simple Ionic columns were used for smaller temples and building interiors. 323 to 146 B.C. — Hellenistic. When Greece was at the height of its power in Europe and Asia, the empire built elaborate temples and secular buildings with Ionic and Corinthian columns. The Hellenistic period ended with conquests by the Roman Empire. 44 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Roman. The Romans borrowed heavily from the earlier Greek and Hellenistic styles, but their buildings were more highly ornamented. They used Corinthian and composite style columns along with decorative brackets. The invention of concrete allowed the Romans to build arches, vaults, and domes. Famous examples of Roman architecture include the Roman Colosseum and the Pantheon in Rome. Much of this ancient architecture is in ruins or partially rebuilt. Virtual reality programs like Romereborn.org attempt to digitally recreate the environment of this important civilization. 527 to 565 — Byzantine Church of Hagia Eirene in the First Courtyard of the TopkapÄ ± Palace, Istanbul, Turkey. Salvator Barki/Getty Images (cropped) After Constantine moved the capital of the Roman empire to Byzantium (now called Istanbul in Turkey) in A.D. 330, Roman architecture evolved into a graceful, classically-inspired style that used brick instead of stone, domed roofs, elaborate mosaics, and classical forms. Emperor Justinian (527 to 565) led the way. Eastern and Western traditions combined in the sacred buildings of the Byzantine period. Buildings were designed with a central dome that eventually rose to new heights by using engineering practices refined in the Middle East. This era of architectural history was transitional and  transformational. 800 to 1200 — Romanesque Romanesque Architecture of the Basilica of St. Sernin (1070-1120) in Toulouse, France. Anger O./AgenceImages courtesy Getty Images As Rome spread across Europe, heavier, stocky Romanesque architecture with rounded arches emerged. Churches and castles of the early Medieval period were constructed with thick walls and heavy piers. Even as the Roman Empire faded, Roman ideas reached far across Europe. Built between 1070 and 1120, the  Basilica of St. Sernin in Toulouse, France is a good example of this transitional architecture, with a Byzantine-domed apse and an added Gothic-like steeple. The floor plan is that of the Latin cross, Gothic-like again, with a high alter and tower at the cross intersection. Constructed of stone and brick, St. Sernin is on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela. 1100 to 1450 — Gothic The Gothic Cathedral of Notre Dame de Chartres, France. Alessandro Vannini/Getty Images (cropped) Early in the 12th century, new ways of building meant that cathedrals and other large buildings could soar to new heights. Gothic architecture became characterized by the elements that supported taller, more graceful architecture — innovations such as pointed arches, flying buttresses, and ribbed vaulting. In addition, elaborate stained glass could take the place of walls that no longer were used to support high ceilings. Gargoyles and other sculpting enabled practical and decorative functions. Many of the worlds most well-known sacred places are from this period in architectural history, including Chartres Cathedral and Paris Notre Dame Cathedral in France and Dublins St. Patricks Cathedral and Adare Friary in Ireland. Gothic architecture began mainly in France where builders began to adapt the earlier Romanesque style. Builders were also influenced by the pointed arches and elaborate stonework of Moorish architecture in Spain. One of the earliest Gothic buildings was the ambulatory of the abbey of St. Denis in France, built between 1140 and 1144. Originally, Gothic architecture was known as the French Style. During the Renaissance, after the French Style had fallen out of fashion, artisans mocked it. They coined the word Gothic to suggest that French Style buildings were the crude work of German (Goth) barbarians. Although the label wasnt accurate, the name Gothic remained. While builders were creating the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe, painters and sculptors in northern Italy were breaking away from rigid medieval styles and laying the foundation for the Renaissance. Art historians call the period between 1200 to 1400 the Early Renaissance or the Proto-Renaissance of art history. Fascination for medieval Gothic architecture was reawakened in the 19th and 20th centuries. Architects in Europe and the United States designed great buildings and private homes that imitated the cathedrals of medieval Europe. If a building looks Gothic and has Gothic elements and characteristics, but it was built in the 1800s or later, its style is Gothic Revival. 1400 to 1600 — Renaissance Villa Rotonda (Villa Almerico-Capra), near Venice, Italy, 1566-1590, Andrea Palladio. Massimo Maria Canevarolo via Wikimedia Commons, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0) A return to Classical ideas ushered an age of awakening in Italy, France, and England. During the Renaissance era architects and builders were inspired by the carefully proportioned buildings of ancient Greece and Rome.  Italian Renaissance master Andrea Palladio helped awaken a passion for classical architecture when he designed beautiful, highly symmetrical villas such as Villa Rotonda near Venice, Italy. More than 1,500 years after the Roman architect Vitruvius wrote his important book, the Renaissance architect Giacomo da Vignola outlined Vitruviuss ideas. Published in 1563, Vignolas The Five Orders of Architecture became a guide for builders throughout western Europe. In 1570 Andrea Palladio used the new technology of movable type to publish I Quattro Libri dell Architettura, or The Four Books of Architecture. In this book, Palladio showed how Classical rules could be used not just for grand temples but also for private villas. Palladios ideas did not imitate the Classical order of architecture but his designs were in the manner of ancient designs. The work of the Renaissance masters spread across Europe, and long after the era ended, architects in the Western world would find inspiration in the beautifully proportioned architecture of the period. In the United States its descendant designs have been called neoclassical. 1600 to 1830 — Baroque The Baroque Palace of Versailles in France. Loop Images Tiara Anggamulia/Getty Images (cropped) Early in the 1600s, an elaborate new architectural style lavished buildings. What became known as Baroque was characterized by complex shapes, extravagant ornaments, opulent paintings, and bold contrasts. In Italy, the Baroque style is reflected in opulent and dramatic churches with irregular shapes and extravagant ornamentation. In France, the highly ornamented Baroque style combines with Classical restraint. Russian aristocrats were impressed by the Palace of Versailles, France and incorporated Baroque ideas in the building of St. Petersburg. Elements of the elaborate Baroque style are found throughout Europe. Architecture was only one expression of the Baroque style. In music, famous names included Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi. In the art world, Caravaggio, Bernini, Rubens, Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Velà ¡zquez are remembered. Famous inventors and scientists of the day include Blaise Pascal and Isaac Newton. 1650 to 1790 — Rococo Catherine Palace Near Saint Petersburg, Russia. Saravut Eksuwan/Getty Images During the last phase of the Baroque period, builders constructed graceful white buildings with sweeping curves. Rococo art and architecture is characterized by elegant decorative designs with scrolls, vines, shell-shapes, and delicate geometric patterns. Rococo architects applied Baroque ideas with a lighter, more graceful touch. In fact, some historians suggest that Rococo is simply a later phase of the Baroque period. Architects of this period include the great Bavarian stucco masters like Dominikus Zimmermann, whose  1750 Pilgrimage Church of Wies is a UNESCO World Heritage site. 1730 to 1925 — Neoclassicism The U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. Architect of the Capitol By the 1700s, European architects were turning away from elaborate Baroque and Rococo styles in favor of restrained Neoclassical approaches. Orderly, symmetrical Neoclassical architecture reflected the intellectual awakening among the middle and upper classes in Europe during the period historians often call the Enlightenment. Ornate Baroque and Rococo styles fell out of favor as architects for a growing middle class reacted to and rejected the opulence of the ruling class. French and American revolutions returned design to Classical ideals  Ã¢â‚¬â€ including equality and democracy — emblematic of the civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome. A keen interest in ideas of Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio inspired a return of Classical shapes in Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. These buildings were proportioned according to the classical orders with details borrowed from ancient Greece and Rome. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, the newly-formed United States drew upon Classical ideals to construct grand government buildings and an array of smaller, private homes. 1890 to 1914 — Art Nouveau The 1910 Hà ´tel Lutetia in Paris, France. Justin Lorget/chesnot/Corbis via Getty Images Known as the New Style in France, Art Nouveau was first expressed in fabrics and graphic design. The style spread to architecture and furniture in the 1890s as a revolt against industrialization turned peoples attention to the natural forms and personal craftsmanship of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Art Nouveau buildings often have asymmetrical shapes, arches, and decorative Japanese-like surfaces with curved, plant-like designs and mosaics. The period is often confused with Art Deco, which has an entirely different visual look and philosophical origin. Note that the name Art Nouveau is French, but the philosophy  Ã¢â‚¬â€ to some extent spread by the ideas of William Morris and the writings of John Ruskin — gave rise to similar movements throughout Europe. In Germany it was called Jugendstil; in Austria it was Sezessionsstil; in Spain it was Modernismo, which predicts or event begins the modern era. The works of Spanish architect Antoni Gaudà ­ (1852-1926) are said to be influenced by Art Nouveau or Modernismo, and Gaudi is often called one of the first modernist architects. 1895 to 1925 — Beaux Arts The Paris Opera by Beaux Arts Architect Charles Garnier. Francisco Andrade/Getty Images (cropped) Also known as Beaux Arts Classicism, Academic Classicism, or Classical Revival, Beaux Arts architecture is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design, grandiosity, and elaborate ornamentation. Combining classical Greek and Roman architecture with Renaissance ideas, Beaux Arts architecture was a favored style for grand public buildings and opulent mansions. 1905 to 1930 — Neo-Gothic The Neo-Gothic 1924 Tribune Tower in Chicago. Glowimage/Getty Images (cropped) In the early 20th century, medieval Gothic ideas were applied to modern buildings, both private homes and the new type of architecture called skyscrapers. Gothic Revival was a Victorian style inspired by Gothic cathedrals and other medieval architecture.  Gothic Revival home design began in the United Kingdom in the 1700s when Sir Horace Walpole decided to remodel his home, Strawberry Hill. In the early 20th century, Gothic Revival ideas were applied to modern skyscrapers, which are often called Neo-Gothic. Neo-Gothic skyscrapers often have strong vertical lines and a sense of great height; arched and pointed windows with decorative tracery; gargoyles and other medieval carvings; and pinnacles. The 1924 Chicago Tribune Tower is a good example of Neo-Gothic architecture. The architects Raymond Hood and John Howells were selected over many other architects to design the building. Their Neo-Gothic design may have appealed to the judges because it reflected a conservative (some critics said regressive) approach. The facade of the Tribune Tower is studded with rocks collected from great buildings around the world. Other Neo-Gothic buildings include the Cass Gilbert design for the Woolworth Building in New York City. 1925 to 1937 — Art Deco The Art Deco Chrysler Building in New York City. CreativeDream/Getty Images With their sleek forms and ziggurat designs, Art Deco architecture embraced both the machine age and ancient times. Zigzag patterns and vertical lines create dramatic effect on jazz-age, Art Deco buildings. Interestingly, many Art Deco motifs were inspired by the architecture of ancient Egypt. The Art Deco style evolved from many sources. The austere shapes of the modernist Bauhaus School and streamlined styling of modern technology combined with patterns and icons taken from the Far East, classical Greece and Rome, Africa, ancient Egypt and the Middle East, India, and Mayan and Aztec cultures. Art Deco buildings have many of these features: cubic forms; ziggurat, terraced pyramid shapes with each story smaller than the one below it; complex groupings of rectangles or trapezoids; bands of color; zigzag designs like lightening bolts; strong sense of line; and the illusion of pillars. By the 1930s, Art Deco evolved into a more simplified style known as Streamlined Moderne, or Art Moderne. The emphasis was on sleek, curving forms and long horizontal lines. These buildings did not feature zigzag or colorful designs found on earlier Art Deco architecture. Some of the most famous art deco buildings have become tourist destinations in New York City — the Empire State Building and Radio City Music Hall may be the most famous. The 1930 Chrysler Building in New York City was one of the first buildings composed of stainless steel over a large exposed surface. The architect, William Van Alen, drew inspiration from machine technology for the ornamental details on the Chrysler Building: There are eagle hood ornaments, hubcaps, and abstract images of cars. 1900 to Present — Modernist Styles De La Warr Pavilion, 1935, Bexhill on Sea, East Sussex, United Kingdom. Peter Thompson Heritage Images/Getty Images The 20th and 21st centuries have seen dramatic changes and astonishing diversity. Modernist styles have come and gone  Ã¢â‚¬â€ and continue to evolve. Modern-day trends include Art Moderne and the Bauhaus school coined by Walter Gropius, Deconstructivism, Formalism, Brutalism, and Structuralism. Modernism is not just another style  Ã¢â‚¬â€ it presents a new way of thinking. Modernist architecture emphasizes function. It attempts to provide for specific needs rather than imitate nature. The roots of Modernism may be found in the work of Berthold Luberkin (1901-1990), a Russian architect who settled in London and founded a group called Tecton. The Tecton architects believed in applying scientific, analytical methods to design. Their stark buildings ran counter to expectations and often seemed to defy gravity. The expressionistic work of the Polish-born German architect Erich Mendelsohn (1887-1953) also furthered the modernist movement. Mendelsohn and Russian-born English architect Serge Chermayeff (1900-1996) won the competition to design the De La Warr Pavilion in Britain. The 1935 seaside public hall has been called Streamline Moderne and International, but it most certainly is one of the first modernist buildings to be constructed and restored, maintaining its original beauty over the years. Modernist architecture can express a number of stylistic ideas, including Expressionism and Structuralism. In the later decades of the twentieth century, designers rebelled against the rational Modernism and a variety of Postmodern styles evolved. Modernist architecture generally has little or no ornamentation and is prefabricated or has factory-made parts. The design emphasizes function and the man-made construction materials are usually glass, metal, and concrete. Philosophically, modern architects rebel against traditional styles. For examples of Modernism in architecture, see works by Rem Koolhaas, I.M. Pei, Le Corbusier, Philip Johnson, and Mies van der Rohe. 1972 to Present — Postmodernism Postmodern Architecture at 220 Celebration Place, Celebration, Florida. Jackie Craven A reaction against the Modernist approaches gave rise to new buildings that re-invented historical details and familiar motifs. Look closely at these architectural movements and you are likely to find ideas that date back to classical and ancient times. Postmodern architecture evolved from the modernist movement, yet contradicts many of the modernist ideas. Combining new ideas with traditional forms, postmodernist buildings may startle, surprise, and even amuse. Familiar shapes and details are used in unexpected ways. Buildings may incorporate symbols to make a statement or simply to delight the viewer. Philip Johnsons ATT Headquarters is often cited as an example of postmodernism. Like many buildings in the International Style, the skyscraper has a sleek, classical facade. At the top, however, is an oversized Chippendale pediment. Johnsons design for the Town Hall in Celebration, Florida is also playfully over-the-top with columns in front of a public building. Well-known postmodern architects include Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown; Michael Graves; and the playful Philip Johnson, known for making fun of Modernism. The key ideas of Postmodernism are set forth in two important books by Robert Venturi. In his groundbreaking 1966 book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, Venturi challenged modernism and celebrated the mix of historic styles in great cities such as Rome. Learning from Las Vegas, subtitled The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form, became a postmodernist classic when Venturi called the vulgar billboards of the Vegas Strip emblems for a new architecture. Published in 1972, the book was written by Robert Venturi, Steven Izenour, and Denise Scott Brown. 1997 to Present — Neo-Modernism and Parametricism Zaha Hadids Heydar Aliyev Centre, 2012, Baku, Azerbaijan. Christopher Lee/Getty Images Throughout history, home designs have been influenced by the architecture du jour. In the not far off future, as computer costs come down and construction companies change their methods, homeowners and builders will be able to create fantastic designs. Some call todays architecture Neo-Modernism. Some call it Parametricism, but the name for computer-driven design is up for grabs. How did Neo-Modernism begin? Perhaps with Frank Gehrys sculpted designs, especially the success of the 1997 Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain. Maybe it began with architects who experimented with Binary Large Objects — BLOB architecture. But you might say that free-form design dates back to prehistoric times. Just look at Moshe Safdies 2011 Marina Bay Sands Resort in Singapore: It looks just like Stonehenge. Prehistoric Stonehenge (left) and Moshe Safdies 2011 Marina Bay Sands Resort in Singapore (right). Left: Grant Faint / Right: photo by william cho Sources History and Research: Silbury Hill, English Heritage Foundation, http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/silbury-hill/history-and-research/; Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, United Nations, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/373 Additional photo credits: Tribune Tower, Jon Arnold/Getty Images; Stonehenge / Marina Bay Sands Resort, Images (cropped) by Archive Photos/Archive Photos Collection/Getty Images (left) and AT Photography/Moment Collection/Getty Images (right)

What Everybody Dislikes About Civil Liberties Essay Topics and Why

What Everybody Dislikes About Civil Liberties Essay Topics and Why In political science, in addition, it studies the financial rise and development in regions of employment, income, budget and expenditures and the creation of public goods and solutions. While the international financial crisis might represent a changing tide for certain video surveillance providers, it is good for the industry on the balance. The absolute most modest innovations have a tendency to enhance the high quality and cost of the use of CCTV technology. Our site is also encrypted to guarantee extra security. The Upside to Civil Liberties Essay Topics Liberty as a social value is a somewhat recent idea that has emerged over the duration of the previous few decades. This is because the American population is distinguished by a huge diversity of people from all around the world because of extensive migration. Since that time, the society that we are living in today has developed and become far more mat ure. 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Marriage isn't required, nor are there any requirements concerning the gender or number of people you've got sex with. Freedom of speech is, naturally, important. See FindLaw's Civil Rights Basics section to find out more about the related idea of civil rights. There are many men and women in the country who enjoy serving and possess the capacity to achieve that. It was a type of emergency and you were able to handle everything in a professional way. Generally, it takes as much as two hours of time to comb through dozens of sites until you discover something exciting to write about. The easiest way for individuals to take note of public safety is to find assistance from workers. Civil Liberties Essay Topics - What Is It? On the other hand, the public needs to be more aware now than otherwise since they are confronted with lots of danger from assorted corners and is critical to be mindful of what steps to take for protection in the case of an attack. 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In Western political philosophy, it's been argued that a state has to be established to guard humans from one another. Freedom, by comparison, should remain as a very important component of societies that could guarantee the well-being for people who enact it. Additional liberty and democracy won't always coexist peaceably. The civil liberty of freedom of speech particularly has become the specific focus of the essay and it has been proven through various examples that among others, it is by far the most important civil liberty.

Rhetorical Analysis of Obama Speech Free Essays

string(93) " the blood of humanity: African, European, slave, and the Caucasian slave owner within them\." Literatures and Foreign Languages Let Us Learn and Resource Together 23 November 2008 Rhetorical Analysis of â€Å"A More Perfect Union† Speech The speech titled â€Å"A More Perfect Union† was delivered by Senator Barack Obama on March 18, 2008 near the historical site of the signing of the U. S. Constitution in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. We will write a custom essay sample on Rhetorical Analysis of Obama Speech or any similar topic only for you Order Now The speech responds to the video clip of Barack Obama’s pastor, Reverend Jeremiah Wright, making racially charged comments against America and Israel. The pundits and various news media outlets played the clip repeatedly on the television, radio, YouTube, and podcasts. First, the Senator’s speech attempts to address the nation on their concerns of his affiliation with Reverend Wright. Second, the speech addresses the sustaining and prevailing issues of race within America and how it paralyzes our nation. The speech is compelling because it possesses the necessary elements of effective and persuasive rhetoric; in summation, Obama’s rhetoric works. Rhetoric is the study of opposing arguments, misunderstanding, and miscommunication. Also, relevant to this analysis, rhetoric will be defined as the ability to speak and write effectively and to use language and oratory strategically. Despite the common employment of speech writers by most politicians, Senator Obama wrote the speech himself. By addressing the misunderstanding and miscommunication connected to and perpetrated by racism in America, the audience sees precisely how effective Obama’s speech is when examined through such lenses as the classical and 20th century rhetorical theories and concepts from Aristotle, Richard Weaver, Stephen Toulmin, Chaim Perelman, and Michel Foucault. Barack Obama’s speech echoes the rhetorical concepts of ethos, pathos, and logos that are explicitly discussed within Aristotle’s The Rhetoric. Ethos is how the speaker’s character and credibility aids his or her influence of the audience; whereas pathos is a rhetorical device that alters the audience’s perceptions through storytelling and emotional appeals (181). Logos uses reason to construct an argument and to covey an idea (182). Finally, kairos attempts to conceptualize the need for the correct timing (201). Therefore, ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos are all evident within the speech and expressed in various ways, striking language and repetition, and through different receptors, emotions and logic. Ethos is accomplished on intellectual, social, spiritual, and biological levels. Senator Obama does this by giving factual information. He interjects historical references; he explains the extent of his family tree. Thus, the Senator gives creditability to his speech and validity to his message. The implication is that everyone should listen; he is the authority. He acknowledges that the press routinely looks â€Å"for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well† (Obama, par. 7). From this quote, the audience is being persuaded by the classical theoretical concepts of opposing arguments. The audience is fully aware of the division between the races, and the speech is very effective due to the fact that Barack Obama is willing to speak of what is often unspoken. When addressing his intellectual ethos, Obama mentions that he has â€Å"gone to some of the best schools in America† (Obama, par. 6). Secondly, he recites, â€Å"We the people, in order to form a more perfect union,† which is easily recognized as the first line in the U. S. Constitution (Obama, par. 2). Even those who do not possess complete knowledge of the famous line immediately understand that something of importance is being conveyed to them. Thirdly, he demonstrates his awareness of past occurrences and present concerns on the global scale. Senator Obama recalls the â€Å"legacy of slavery and Jim Crow† within our nation (Obama, par. 24). He acknowledges the present dangers of â€Å"conflicts in the Middle East† and explains the cause of such conflict (Obama, par. 10). The audience is given evidence that he understands the role of history as well as the present-day global concerns affecting our nation. Furthermore, Senator Obama uses ethos to gain credibility with his knowledge of social issues that pervade our society today. He states, â€Å"The most segregated hour of American life occurs on Sunday morning† (Obama, par. 12). He acknowledges that the resentments of the black and white communities â€Å"aren’t always expressed in polite company,† but these resentments are manifested within our society in destructive ways, like racism (Obama, par. 31). The audience feels that he is knowledgeable and credible on the immediate topics affecting our future and our daily lives. Ethos is also applied on a spiritual level by mentioning his present faith and making Biblical references. He states that â€Å"more than twenty years ago [he was] introduce[d] †¦to Christian faith [with] obligations to love one another, to care for the sick and lift up the poor† (Obama, par. 13). He noted how â€Å"black people merg[ed] with the stories of David and Goliath, Moses and Pharaoh, the Christians in the lion’s den, [and] Ezekiel’s field of dry bones† (Obama, par. 16). Senator Obama is altering the language. Christians did not exist in the Old Testament story of Ezekiel, but Senator Obama is effectively connecting with every major religion. Simultaneously, he is reaching out to the secular world as well. Being cognizant that everyone does not actively practice a religious faith, Obama chooses stories that everyone, Christians and non-Christians, could identify and recognize. Thus, these religious references connect with masses as well as members of the three major religions. Finally, Senator Obama gains ethos by explaining his own genetic makeup. He states that he is â€Å"the son of a black man from Kenya and a white woman from Kansas†¦ [He continues that he] is married to a Black American who carries within her the blood of slaves and slave owners†¦ [Then, he acknowledges that he has] brothers, sisters, nieces, nephews, uncles and cousins of every race and every hue scattered across three continents† (Obama, par. 6). In essence, he reveals that he has the blood of Africa, the birthplace of humanity, and the blood of a woman of French descent within him. He has married a woman who has both slave and slave owner flowing within her. Moreover, he has fathered children who have the blood of humanity: African, European, slave, and the Caucasian slave owner within them. You read "Rhetorical Analysis of Obama Speech" in category "Papers" Thus, he is an authority on race. He states, â€Å"[his] story [is] seared into [his] genetic makeup the idea that this nation is more that the sum of its parts–that out of many, we are truly one† (Obama, par. 6). The audience revels at his remarkable story, and ethos is achieved through storytelling. In essence, Obama forges a biological connection with his audience. The connection is strengthened through Senator Obama’s use of pathos. It is achieved through the use of emotional appeals. He alters the thoughts and feelings of his audience through storytelling, imagery, and allusion. The topic of race, within itself, evokes strong emotions, even to this very moment, this very second. The senator begins by telling a story of his grandfather â€Å"who survived a Depression to serve in Patton’s army during World War II† (Obama, par. 6). The use of key terms such as Depression, Patton’s army, and World War II evoke the emotional responses of patriotism and self-sacrifice. Toward the end of his speech, Obama shares another story; he tells of a young, white, Southern campaigner–Ashley Baia–who inspires an old, black, Southern man to vote (Obama, par. 45-46). In essence, Baia encourages pathos by telling her story. Barack Obama uses Baia’s story of inspiration to highlight the power in sharing his own story. The audience is able to connect through the emotional appeals that take place at the very core of humanity. It is easy to disrespect and dishonor something that is foreign and unknown, but it is hard to turn away from the essence of another man’s soul. As fellow humans, the audience recognizes the sheer humanity in the story. Pathos is also achieved through the use of allusion and imagery. The imagery that is provoked with terms such as slave or slavery is still poignant today. Most people are cognizant of the plight of slaves within this country. The audience would be aware of the racism that ensued and the devastation and isolation that slavery caused in American history. When Barack Obama describes the various ways that racism manifested within our society, pathos is achieved because of the powerful imagery of the allusions to race and racial conflicts within our community. The audience is trapped and becomes aware of the prejudices and experiences of race and racism within their own lives, thus causing emotions to surge and overflow. Pathos, being the weakest form of rhetoric, is utilized by Senator Obama sparingly. Instead, he overwhelmingly utilizes the most powerful form of rhetoric, logos. Logos is the ability to embody rational, logical, methodical thoughts and persuasions. As it relates to Obama’s speech, examples of logos are found throughout the text. For example, by displaying objectivity, the element of logos is achieved. Senator Barack Obama methodically explains the problems with race within America, and he gives logical, reasoned resolutions to the problems. He explains, â€Å"The anger [of Blacks and] the memories of humiliation and doubt and fear have not gone away, nor has the anger and bitterness of those years†¦ [Later he offers resolution and states that] the African-American community [must embrace] our past without becoming victims of our past† (Obama, par. 34). Many African-Americans will identify with Obama’s assessment of race within the African-American community, and they will be inspired to act in a positive manner. Simultaneously, he acknowledges â€Å"a similar anger within†¦the white community. They [feel] they’ve worked hard all their lives†¦They are anxious about their future, and they feel their dreams slipping away [and] resentment builds over time†¦ [Furthermore, he offers resolution and urges that] the white community [must acknowledge] that what ails the African-American community does not just exist in the minds of black people; that the legacy of discrimination [exists]† (Obama, par. 36). From these lines, the audience is persuaded to respond in a positive manner as well, and they are urged to approach the subject of racism both subjectively and objectively. Senator Obama recognizes the duality of both plights and asks the American people not to blame each other but investigate and seek out the true reason of conflict within our nation. Thus, Obama is using inductive and deductive reasoning, which is indicative of logos. By utilizing Aristotle’s method and system, Obama’s appeals to logic are beyond reproach. Once his reasons are defined, he states that this is the time that we must take action and secure our future together, and Obama begins to preach on the importance of time. The issue of time and timing directly correlates with the classical rhetorical term kairos. Obama conveys time in a powerful fashion. In the beginning of his speech, he states, â€Å"Two hundred and twenty one years ago [our forefathers]†¦produced [a document that was] eventually signed, but ultimately unfinished. It was stained by the nation’s original sin of slavery [that] brought the convention to a stalemate until the founders chose to allow the slave trade to continue for at least 20 more years, and leave any final resolution to future generations† (Obama, par. 3). Later, he explains how people often manipulate race to win political elections and prevent unity. Barack Obama speaks of the continual war between segments of our community. Then he states, â€Å"But race is an issue that I believe this nation cannot afford to ignore right now† (Obama, par. 23). Furthermore, he acknowledges â€Å"the complexities of race† in America have never been resolved. He urges Americans â€Å"to come together and solve [the] challenges [in America]† (Obama, par. 33). He persuades the audience to racial relations within America a priority. In summary, kairos is aggressively addressed and highlighted. The audience realizes that the problem at hand may have been ignored by our forefathers, but these problems must be addressed now. Toward the end, kairos reaches its peak of effectiveness. Obama states that what has been effectively dividing the races in the past will not happen again: Not this time. This time we want to talk about crumbling schools†¦This time we want to reject the cynicism†¦This time we want to talk about [healthcare]†¦This time we want to talk about [jobs]†¦This time we want to talk about [race]†¦This time—This time we want to talk about the men and women of every color and creed who serve together, and fight together, and bleed together under the same proud flag (Obama, par. 40-41). From these lines, the audience feels the urgency of time; the listeners realize that â€Å"this time† America must act. Obama effectually uses the sophistic rhetorical theories and concepts to ignite and unite the audience; however, he also incorporates modern-day rhetorical theories and concepts as well. Specifically, Senator Obama utilizes the hierarchy of definition, analogy, cause and effect, and testimony of the 20th century rhetorician, Richard Weaver. In the introduction of Language Is Sermonic, the narrator summates Weaver as stating, â€Å"Rhetoric†¦is a positive act with consequences in the world†¦Every utterance is an attempt to make others see the world in a particular way and accept the values implicit in that point of view† (1348). Similarly, Obama desires to persuade the audience to see the world from a different perspective, a different lens. First, toward the beginning of the text, Obama defines the Black church. He states, â€Å"Black churches across the country embod[y] the community in its entirety—the doctor and the welfare mom, the model student and the former gang-banger†¦[S]ervices are full of raucous laughter and sometimes bawdy humor†¦ [Full] of kindness and cruelty, the fierce intelligence and the shocking ignorance, the struggles and successes, the love [as well as] the bitterness and biases† (Obama, par. 8). If one really looks closely at the definition, it is also a definition of America as well as the Black church. By explaining the polarity within the Black church, he explains the polarity within America as a whole. In this way, Obama uses rhetoric in a positive way to impact his audience and highlights that â€Å"every utterance is an attempt to make others see the wo rld in a particular way [through definition]. † Second, Weaver asserts, â€Å"Rhetoric [is] the most important of all ends, the persuading of human beings to adopt right attitudes and act in response to them† (1351). From these lines, one can examine Senator Obama’s use of twentieth century rhetorical theories and concepts. Obama uses â€Å"cause-and-effect† by illustrating the history of racism within the United States (1354). He states: We do not need to recite here the history of racial injustice in this country. But we do need to remind ourselves that so many of the disparities that existed between the African-American community and the larger American community today can be traced directly to inequalities passed from an earlier generation that suffered under the brutal legacy of slavery and Jim Crow (Obama, par. 4). In essence, Obama is stating that the racism today has a sordid past in our history; it can not be ignored, but it must be confronted, discussed, and acted upon. Obama is using this cause-and-effect to play on the emotions of his audience. Everyone is aware of the gruesome history, yet, as Weaver puts it, â€Å"Humanity includes emotionality or the capacity to feel and suffer, to know pleasure† (1352). From these lines, it is obvious that Senator Obama uses cause-and-effect to evoke an emotional response and sway the audience to his point of view. Furthermore, Barack Obama utilizes the elements outlined by Stephen Toulmin’s The Uses of Argument. He uses the schema of the six components in analyzing arguments: qualifier, claim, data, warrant, backing, and rebuttal. The qualifier is the â€Å"word or phrase [that] expresses the speaker’s degree of force or certainty concerning the claim† (1418). Next, the claim is the â€Å"conclusion whose merit must be established† (1417). Then, the data is the â€Å"fact we appeal to as a foundation for the claim† (1417). The warrant is â€Å"the statement authorizing our movement from the data to the claim† (1419). How to cite Rhetorical Analysis of Obama Speech, Papers